University Catalog: 2008-09

Think. Learn. Succeed.

English

Phone: 703-993-1160
Web: english.gmu.edu

Faculty

Professors: L. Brown, Cheuse, D’Andrea (Robinson Professor), Foster, Goodwin, Hodges, Jann, Lathbury, Lowry, Nadeau, Pankey

Associate professors: Albanese, Amireh, Anderson, Atkinson, Burr, Clark, Foreman, Fuchs, Gallehr, Hawk, Holisky, Jones, Kaplan (chair), Kaufmann, Keaney, Kuebrich, Lattanzi Shutika, Matz, Rutledge, Tichy, Trafton, Weinberger, Yadav, Yocom

Assistant professors: Eisner, Eyman, Habila, Harvey, Keith, Lin, Marcantonio, McCarthy, Ngalabak, Reid, Sample, Widerhold, Zawacki

Term associate professors: Koch, Michals, Miller, Samuelian, Scott, Taciuch, Taylor, Thompson

Term instructors: Beach, Hoy, Raffel, Scolaro

Adjunct assistant professors: Burnham, DeFazio, Dreisonstok, Fowler, Humbertson, Jacobs, Kuhta, Moody, Pabich, Redondo

Adjunct instructors: Cooper, Grogan-Barone, Gulshan, Holcomb, Johnston, McKinney

Course Work

The English Department offers all course work designated CL, ENGL, LING, and NAIS in the Course Descriptions chapter of this catalog.

Courses offered by other departments are occasionally cross-listed with English and given the ENGL course designator; such courses may be counted toward the English major.

Undergraduate Programs

English, BA

BA-ENGL

Degree Requirements

In addition to university-wide general education requirements and college-level requirements for the BA degree in CHSS, students pursuing this degree must complete 30 credits (nine courses) in English beyond ENGL 302 with a minimum GPA of 2.00 distributed as follows:

  • One required course (6 credits): ENGL 325, with a minimum grade of C (2.00)
  • Four core courses (12 credits) distributed as follows:
    • One course (3 credits) in literature before 1800 (may simultaneously satisfy a concentration), chosen from ENGL 335, 336, 400, 401, 402, 404, 405, 431, 440, 443, 450, 471, 472, and 474, and by special topics courses as approved by the department
    • One course (3 credits) in literature before 1915 (may simultaneously satisfy a concentration), chosen from courses listed above and ENGL 368, 370, 406, 407, 423, 425, 436, 452, and 453; and by special topics courses as approved by the department
    • One course (3 credits) in minority, folkloric, or popular literary and cultural traditions (may simultaneously satisfy a concentration), chosen from ENGL 333, 334, 349, 350, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 375, 439, 460, 479, 491, 492, and 493, and by special topics courses as approved by the department
    • One course (3 credits) of an elective above ENGL 302
  • Four courses (12 credits) in one of the following concentrations:

Concentration in American Literature (ALIT)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 333, 368, 370, 371, 372, 375, 380, 390, 423, 425, 447, 452, 454, 463, 478, or from special topics courses when designated by department

Concentration in Creative Writing (CW)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 344, 397, 398, 399, 458, 464 or 497

Concentration in Cultural Studies (CULT)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 327, 330, 332, 333, 334, 338, 349, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 460, 479, 490, 491, 493, or from special topics courses when designated by department. Up to one course (3 credits) may be from outside the English Department from COMM 465; CULT 320; PSYC 362; SOCI 315; WMST 300, 330.

Concentration in Drama (DRA)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 335, 336, 440, 443, 445, 447, 448, 449 or from special topics courses when designated by department. A maximum of one course (3 credits) may be from courses on Shakespeare. Up to one course (3 credits) may be from outside the English Department from FREN 413, 442; RUSS 407; SPAN 565, THR 350, 351, 352, 380, 381

Concentration in Fiction (FIC)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 380, 398, 463, 437, 450, 452, 453, 454, 456, 459, 460, 492 or from special topics courses when designated by department

At least one of the four courses (3 credits) must be in fiction before 1915 chosen from ENGL 436, 450, 452, 453, or from special topics courses when designated by department

Concentration in Film and Media Studies (FILM)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 327, 332, 343, 421, 422, 490 or from special topics courses when designated by department. Up to one course (3 credits) may be from outside the English Department from ARTH 362, 373, 374; COMM 380, 465; MUSI 301; RUSS 470

Concentration in Folklore and Mythology (FML)

At least two courses (6 credits) in folklore and mythology chosen from ENGL 311, 333, 337, 491, 498, 591 or from special topics courses when designated by department. Up to one course (3 credits) may be from outside the English Department from ANTH 450 or CLAS 340

Up to two courses (6 credits) related to folklore and mythology chosen from ENGL 327, 335, 336, 349, 368, 370, 371, 372, 400, 445, 471, 472, 474. One course (3 credits) may be from outside the English Department from ANTH 301, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 311, 313, 332; ARTH 319, 321, 322, 340, 342, 345, 382, 383, 384, 385; RELI 351

Concentration in Linguistics (LING)

One required course (3 credits): LING 326

Three courses (9 credits) chosen from LING 322, 326, 450, 485, 486, 490, 499, 507, 521, 522, 523, 581, 582

Concentration in Medieval and Renaissance Literature (MRL)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 355, 336, 400, 401, 402, 431, 440, 471, 472, 473, 474 or from special topics courses when designated by department. Up to one course (3 credits) may be from outside the English Department from ARTH 334, 340, 341, 342, 344, 345; HIST 304, 305, 306, 321; PHIL 302; RELI 371

Concentration in Modern British Literature (MBL)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 404, 405, 406, 407, 443, 445, 450, 453, 456, 462 or from special topics courses when designated by department

Concentration in Nonfiction Writing and Rhetoric (NWR)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from 309, 311, 342, 343, 392, 399, 410, 489, 496, 498, 503, 504, 505 or from special topics courses when designated by department

Concentration in Poetry (POE)

Four courses (12 credits) chosen from ENGL 335, 336, 390, 397, 400, 401, 402, 404, 406, 407, 462, 463, 468, 471 or from special topics courses when designated by department

Concentration in World Literature (WLIT)

At least two courses (6 credits) chosen from ENGL 349, 350, 436, 437, 439, 448 or from special topics courses when designated by department

Up to one course (3 credits) chosen from courses from the concentrations in Medieval and Renaissance Literature, American Literature, or Modern British Literature

Up to one course (3 credits) in a relevant course from these approved courses: ANTH 300; CULT 320; HIST 308, 309, 387; CHIN 310, 311, 325, 328; FRLN 330; FREN 325, 329; GERM 325; JAPA 320; RUSS 325, 326, 327; SPAN 325, 329

Students should consult with an English Department advisor to learn ways in which the university-wide general education requirements can also satisfy college-level requirements or the English major. Graduating majors participate in assessment of the degree by preparing a dossier of writing completed in their upper-level courses.

Comparative Literature Emphasis

The English Department and the Modern and Classical Languages Department offer a BA in English with an emphasis in comparative literature. This program combines the study of literature in English with the study of one or more foreign literatures and with cross-cultural literary study. It requires 10 courses above ENGL 302, distributed as follows:

  • One introductory course in literary criticism, as appropriate for the student’s focus: ENGL 325, FREN 381, or SPAN 311
  • CL 300 (if offered) or an approved alternative
  • Two courses in English or American literature
  • Two courses in a literature other than English or American, either in translation or, for those pursuing foreign language study, with selected readings in the original language
  • Three courses designated as comparative or world literature courses by the comparative literature committee and generally selected in consultation with the advisor every semester (Examples are ENGL 350, 431, 436, 437, and 439; various 300-level CLAS courses; FRLN 330 courses; and appropriate special topics courses in ENGL, FREN, GERM, RUSS, SPAN, or other language.)
  • CL 514

Students should consult with their advisor to design a program of study that best suits their particular interests and goals.

Writing-Intensive Requirement

The university requires all students to complete at least one course designated as “writing intensive” in their majors at the 300 level or above. Students majoring in English fulfill this requirement by successfully completing ENGL 325.

English in a Double Major

Students interested in designing a double major are encouraged to discuss their plans with their English advisor and the director of undergraduate programs in English.

Honors Program in English

To qualify for graduation with honors, students must complete the honors course sequence and receive a 3.50 GPA in all courses counted toward the major and, separately, a minimum 3.50 GPA in their honors courses. Honors courses may simultaneously satisfy concentration and distribution requirements in the major.

Students may satisfy the honors course sequence in several ways:

  • Students may take two sections of ENGL 414 Honors Seminar.
  • Students may take one section of ENGL 414 Honors Seminar and ENGL 415 Honors Thesis Writing Seminar in conjunction with another advanced literature or cultural studies course.
  • Students in the creative writing concentration may take one section of ENGL 414 Honors Seminar and write a creative honors thesis in ENGL 416 Honors Independent Study.
  • Students in the nonfiction concentration may take ENGL 416 Honors Independent Study in conjunction with an advanced course in nonfiction writing and complete a nonfiction thesis as part of ENGL 415 Honors Thesis Writing Seminar.

See the English Department for application procedures and other information.

Minor in English

A minor in English provides students with a sound introduction to the field of literary studies and allows them to select a set of courses to suit their individual interests. Prerequisites for the minor in English are the 3-credit university-wide general education requirement in literature.

Students pursuing this minor must complete 18 credits above ENGL 302 with a minimum 2.00 GPA distributed as follows:

  • One required course (6 credits): ENGL 325
  • Three courses in a concentration listed under the English major or three courses that satisfy the core requirements for the major (9 credits)
  • One elective course (3 credits)

The minor must be approved by the English Department undergraduate advisor before graduation. In accordance with university policy, at least 8 credits must be applied only to the minor and may not be used to fulfill requirements of the student’s major, concentration, or another minor. For policies governing all minors, see the Academic Policies chapter of this catalog.

Minor in Teaching English as a Second Language

The minor in teaching English as a second language (TESL) helps prepare undergraduate students to teach nonnative speakers of English in the United States or abroad. This course of study combines linguistic theory, second language acquisition theory, and ESL teaching methodology.

The minor in TESL may be pursued concurrently with any undergraduate major. English majors concentrating in linguistics can apply up to 9 credits in LING used for the major to the TESL minor. Students in the TESL minor must have approval from the director to register for the 500-level courses in the TESL program.

Students pursuing this minor complete 18 credits distributed as follows:

  • Five required courses (15 credits): LING 322, 326, 521, 523, and 582
  • One elective course (3 credits) chosen from ANTH 114; COMM 305; ENGL 327; LING 450, 485, 486, 490, 499, 525; or any course (3 credits) in a foreign language beyond the college requirement for the BA degree

Other suitable elective courses may be applied to the minor with the prior approval of the director. In accordance with university policy, at least 8 credits must be applied only to the minor and may not be used to fulfill requirements of the student’s major, concentration, or another minor.

Interdisciplinary Minors

The department coordinates or co-coordinates the interdisciplinary minors in film and media studies, folklore and mythology, and linguistics. See the Interdisciplinary Minors section of this chapter for more information.

Undergraduates in Graduate Courses

The English Department permits qualified undergraduates to enroll in its graduate courses numbered 500 through 599, either for undergraduate or reserve graduate credit. See the department for details on how to enroll.

Teacher Licensure

Students who plan to seek teacher licensure and become K–12 teachers should consult the College of Education and Human Development chapter and attend an information session early in their undergraduate career. For more information, call 703-993-2892, e-mail gseadmit@gmu.edu, or go to gse.gmu.edu.

Writing Center

The Writing Center offers one-on-one conferencing during all stages of the writing process. Conferences are free to all Mason students, faculty, staff, and alumni. Writing Center tutors, who are graduate teaching assistants in the English Department, have been trained in current methods of composition instruction. They can help clients overcome writing anxiety, develop organizational and revision skills, and learn useful strategies for editing their own work. Appointments should be made by calling 703-993-1200 or stopping by the center in Robinson Hall A, Room 116, to schedule a session.

Northern Virginia Writing Project

The Northern Virginia Writing Project (NVWP) is an in-service organization dedicated to improving the writing of Northern Virginia students, kindergarten through university level. Each summer, selected teachers attend an intensive five-week institute where they demonstrate successful teaching techniques, study research on the teaching of writing, and write. After the summer institute, participants return to their schools, colleges, and universities to lead workshops and in-service seminars for other teachers. NVWP is an affiliate of the National Writing Project and one of the seven sites of the Virginia Writing Project.

Bachelor’s/Accelerated Master’s Program in Linguistics

Highly qualified Mason undergraduates may apply to the accelerated master’s degree program and obtain both a BA in English and an MA in English with a concentration in linguistics after satisfactory completion of 144 credits. Well-prepared undergraduates are encouraged to apply as they near completion of 90 credits. Satisfactory performance in LING 326 is a prerequisite for admission. Admitted students are able to use up to 6 graduate credits in partial fulfillment of requirements for the undergraduate degree. On completion and conferral of the undergraduate degree with satisfactory performance (3.00 in each course, grade of B or better) in graduate courses, students are given advanced standing in the master’s program. All other master’s degree requirements must be met. Interested students should contact the director of linguistics for details about the application process.

Graduate Programs

The English Department offers graduate programs in the study and practice of literature and writing, as well as course work in related fields such as folklore, film, and cultural studies. The MA in English (30 credits) provides concentrations in literature, cultural studies, professional writing and rhetoric, the teaching of writing and literature, and linguistics. The department also offers a terminal degree, the MFA in creative writing (48 credits), with concentrations in fiction, poetry, and nonfiction. In addition, the department offers a certificate in teaching English as a second language (TESL, 18 credits), a certificate in professional writing and rhetoric (18 credits), and courses as part of the PhD in education.

English, MA

MA-ENGL

Application Requirements

In addition to fulfilling admission requirements for graduate study, applicants must submit one copy of a 1,000-word analytical writing sample and two letters of recommendation. For those applying in cultural studies, literature, professional writing and rhetoric, and the teaching of writing and literature, the writing sample should be an interpretive paper on a literary text. In addition to the writing sample, applicants must submit a goals statement of no more than 750 words. Applicants for the concentration in professional writing and rhetoric must also submit two copies of a 10- to 15-page portfolio of their nonfiction work such as a technical or business report, essay, term paper, editing project, or any other material reflecting interests and skills in nonfiction writing.

Applicants may submit scores from the GRE when they believe those scores will lead to a clearer representation of their qualifications. Those with undergraduate majors in disciplines other than English are encouraged to apply, but they may be required to make up deficiencies before entering the program.

Degree Requirements

Students pursuing this degree must successfully complete 30 credits in graduate English courses in one of the following concentrations. Students must also demonstrate foreign language proficiency by course work equivalent to Mason’s foreign language 210 or by passing a translation test administered by the department.

Concentration in Cultural Studies (CULT)

  • Two required course (6 credits): ENGL 701 (usually in the first semester of study) and 676
  • Two courses (6 credits) chosen from ENGL 551, 555, 665, 670, 675, 685, 705, 740 (each of the latter three may be repeated once with permission of the director of graduate studies)
  • One course (3 credits): CULT 802 (may not be taken before ENGL 676; completion of at least 24 credits of the degree required)
  • Five courses (15 credits) of literature
  • Thesis option: 6 credits of ENGL 799 (substitutes for 6 credits of literature)
  • Foreign language proficiency as described above

Concentration in Linguistics (LING)

The linguistics concentration of the MA in English combines courses in linguistics with courses in some related area of language study, such as teaching English as a second language, bilingual education, or foreign language teaching. The course of study is designed to prepare students for teaching in one of these fields or for doctoral work. The certificate in teaching English as a second language can be earned concurrently. Students pursuing the linguistics concentration must successfully complete 30 graduate credits, distributed as follows, and demonstrate foreign language proficiency (see above).

  • Six core courses (18 credits): LING 690, 691, 692, 785, 786, 787
  • Four elective courses (12 credits), chosen in consultation with an advisor, which reflect one or more areas of language study (Electives can be in such areas as linguistics, the teaching of reading or writing, literary criticism, bilingual education, or a foreign language, and may include 6 credits of thesis.)

Concentration in Literature (LIT)

  • One required course (3 credits): ENGL 701 (usually in the first semester of study)
  • One course (3 credits) in critical theory, chosen from ENGL 514, 551, 675, 676, or 705
  • Eight courses (24 credits) of literature
  • Thesis option: 6 credits of ENGL 799 thesis may substitute for 6 credits of literature
  • A maximum of 6 credits of related study outside the department may substitute for the equivalent number of literature credits, with permission of the graduate director
  • Foreign language proficiency as described above

Concentration in Professional Writing and Rhetoric (PWR)

  • Two required courses (6 credits): ENGL 501 (usually in the first semester of study) and 502
  • Two courses (6 credits) in professional writing and rhetoric
  • Two courses (6 credits) in writing or nonfiction
  • Three courses (9 credits) chosen from designated courses in rhetorical studies, literature and literary theory, linguistics, cultural studies, film and media studies, and folklore
  • 3 credits in ENGL 797
  • Foreign language proficiency as described above

Concentration in the Teaching of Writing and Literature (TWL)

  • One required course (3 credits): ENGL 701 (usually in the first semester of study)
  • Two courses (6 credits) in writing
  • Two courses (6 credits) of literature
  • One course (3 credits) in linguistics, usually LING 522
  • Two courses (6 credits) in the teaching of writing and in the teaching of literature, usually ENGL 615 and ENGL 610
  • One course (3 credits) in composition theory: either ENGL 697 or an appropriate section of ENGL 611
  • One elective course (3 credits) in literature or writing
  • Thesis option: A thesis may be arranged through the advisor and director of graduate studies in English; this option requires 6 credits and expands the degree program from 30 to 33 credits.
  • Foreign language proficiency as described above

Creative Writing, MFA

MFA-CW

The MFA program has three concentrations: poetry, fiction, and nonfiction. Students should apply to only one concentration, although a student turned down by one concentration may subsequently apply to another or to that same concentration in a subsequent year.

Students interested in taking individual courses or in applying in the future to the MFA program are welcome to apply to take classes as nondegree students; however, such enrollments are allowed only with the instructor’s permission. Regular applicants to the MFA program who are denied admission may not take courses as nondegree students. Students interested in taking a course as nondegree should submit a brief letter of introduction and a writing sample to the professor at least one week before the start of classes.

Admission Requirements

In addition to fulfilling admission requirements for graduate study, applicants must submit two letters of recommendation, one copy of a 1,000-word analytical writing sample, and a portfolio of original work. The analytical writing sample may be a paper written for an undergraduate class or any other work that gives evidence of advanced writing skills. For those applying to the MFA concentration in fiction, the portfolio should consist of up to 50 pages of fiction; at least two complete short stories are preferred. For those applying to the poetry concentration, the portfolio should consist of up to 20 pages of poetry. For those applying to the nonfiction concentration, the portfolio should consist of up to 50 pages of creative nonfiction.

Degree Requirements

Students pursuing this degree must successfully complete 48 graduate credits, distributed as follows:

  • Two to four courses (6 to 12 credits) in literature
  • Four to six courses (12 to 18 credits) of writing workshops in one of the following concentrations:

Concentration in Fiction (FIC)

  • One course (3 credits) in the form: ENGL 566
  • 9 credits in writing workshops: ENGL 618, 751

Concentration in Nonfiction (NFW)

  • One required course: ENGL 506 (Students should enroll the first semester it is offered after they enter the program.)
  • One course (3 credits) in the form: ENGL 565
  • 9 credits in writing workshops: ENGL 616, 752

Concentration in Poetry (POE)

  • One course (3 credits) in the form: ENGL 564
  • 9 credits in writing workshops: ENGL 617, 750
  • At least one course (3 credits) in another genre, which may be ENGL 608
  • 6 credits in thesis (may be taken in the summer term only with permission of the thesis committee)
  • 6 to 12 credits in ENGL 608, with a minimum of 6 credits in student’s chosen genre
  • Up to five courses (15 credits) of electives chosen in consultation with the writing program faculty
  • 1 credit of ENGL 699

With the approval of the MFA faculty, the program director, and the dean, the number of credits required for an MFA may be reduced by a maximum of 20 credits on the basis of graduate course work before admission.

Students in poetry must pass a written MFA exam based on the authors they have chosen. The authors are selected in collaboration with the writing faculty any time after completing 12 credits of course work and before completing 32 credits. The exam must be completed at least one semester before the student registers for the final 3 credits of thesis.

Students in fiction and nonfiction must pass an MFA exam or complete an MFA project. Students who elect to take the MFA exam select, after the completion of 18 credits and with the approval of their faculty advisors, a list of authors and an area of emphasis (for example, the European novel). Students who elect to complete an MFA project (such as editing an anthology) must carry out the project under the direction of a faculty member and may register for ENGL 798 to fulfill this requirement. ENGL 798 may not be used to fulfill the literature requirement or as thesis preparation. The exam or project must be completed at least one semester before the student registers for the final 3 credits of thesis.

Students who have not completed the equivalent of Mason’s foreign language 210 must do so or demonstrate proficiency by passing a translation test administered by the English Department.

Certificate in Folklore

CERG-FLK

The certificate in folklore enables students to explore the processes of tradition that move through multiple expressive forms, such as folktales, folk beliefs, folk medicine, folk art, folksong, and literature. A discipline based on ethnographic fieldwork, folklore offers students a chance to work in communities and collect living traditional materials that are critical to human identity and values. Interdisciplinary by nature, folklore thrives on local particularities as well as compelling global connections. This certificate prepares students for careers in cultural agencies, governmental organizations, and teaching institutions, and advanced study in the humanities.

Certificate Requirements

Students pursuing this certificate must complete 18 credits distributed as follows:

  • Five required courses (15 credits): ENGL 529, 591 (6 credits), 798; ANTH 750
  • One research course (3 credits) chosen from ENGL 701, HIST 610, SOCI 634

Certificate in Teaching English as a Second Language

CERG-TESL

The Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) certificate prepares students to teach non-native speakers of English in the United States or abroad. Certificate courses fulfill, in part, requirements for an endorsement in English as a second language to the Virginia state teaching credential. Students who want to earn this endorsement should consult with an advisor.

Application Requirements

Applicants must be admitted to graduate study or approved for graduate course enrollment as nondegree students. Students who initially enroll in the certificate program as nondegree must apply for admission to the graduate program no later than the second semester of study. When formal admission to graduate study is sought, applicants must submit one copy of an analytical writing sample of approximately 1,000 words, a goals statement, and two letters of recommendation.

The certificate may be pursued concurrently with any of several degree programs offered through the Graduate School of Education, the English Department, and the Modern and Classical Languages Department. Part of the course work toward the certificate may be applied toward degrees in those departments. Students enrolled in another graduate degree program who want to work for the certificate must apply to the English Department for admission into the certificate program.

Certificate Requirements

Students pursuing this certificate must complete 18 credits, earning a grade of 3.00 or better, distributed as follows:

  • Six required courses (18 credits): LING 520, 521, 522, 523, 525, and 582

Certificate in Professional Writing and Editing

CERG- PWE

This certificate provides graduate students with course work in nonfiction writing in specific genres, current writing practices and theories of writing in organizational settings, research methods in professional writing, and nonfiction literature.

Admission Requirements

Applicants must submit an analytical writing sample of at least 1,000 words, a goals statement, two letters of recommendation, and a portfolio of writing or editing. Applicants must be currently admitted to a graduate degree program or approved for enrollment as nondegree students. Because only 6 credits earned as a nondegree student may be applied to the certificate, students who initially take courses as nondegree should apply for admission before completing 6 credits of course work. Completion of course work is not in itself a guarantee of admission to the certificate program.

The certificate may be pursued concurrently with any of several degree programs in English and elsewhere in CHSS. Part of the course work toward the certificate may be applied to those degrees.

Certificate Requirements

Students pursuing this certificate must complete 18 credits of English graduate courses, earning a grade of B or better in each, distributed as follows:

  • One course (3 credits) in editing or publications writing: ENGL 503 or 505
  • One course (3 credits) in writing in organizational settings: ENGL 504 or 612
  • One course (3 credits) in nonfiction writing: ENGL 565, 611, 613, or 616
  • One course (3 credits) in nonfiction literature (Each year, the English Department designates sections that fulfill this requirement from among ENGL 513, 660, and 685.)
  • One course (3 credits) in research: ENGL 506 or 701
  • One elective course (3 credits) chosen from any of the courses listed in the above bullets

Students must have a minimum GPA of 3.00 in course work presented on the certificate application.